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Analysis of Nanoplastics and Microplastics in Food
Section I: Microplastics and Nanoplastics
: Microplastics and Nanoplastics: Origin, Fate and Effects
Introduction
Micro/Nanoplastic Sources within the Environment
Micro/Nanoplastics on Land
Micro/Nanoplastics in the Freshwater Environment
Micro/Nanoplastics in the Marine Environment
Microplastics in the Atmosphere
Micro/Nanoplastics Effects on Plants
Micro/Nanoplastics Effects on the Food Chain
Separation and Analysis of Micro/Nanoplastics in Environmental Samples
Analytical Methodologies to Assess the Micro/Nanoplastics within the Environment
Threat of Micro/Nanoplastics to Human Beings
Oral Route
Dermal Route
Inhalation
Conclusion
References
: Plastic Waste in the Aquatic Environment: Impacts and Management
Introduction
Plastic Waste in the Aquatic Ecosystem
Impacts of Plastic Waste on the Biota of the Aquatic Ecosystem
Impact on Faunal Communities
Coastal and Marine Birds
Fish
Mammals
Reptiles
Invertebrates
Invasive Species
Ecotoxicology
Management and Preventive Measures
Prevention and Control
Management Procedures
Public Awareness and Education
Recycling of Plastics through Environmentally Sound Manners
Establishment of a Waste Stock Exchange (WSE)
Conversion of Plastics Waste into Artifacts
Encourage the Use of Bio-Based and Biodegradable Plastics
Increment in the Thickness of Plastic Films
Household Segregation, Reuse and Recycling
Energy Recovery
Conversion of Plastics Waste into Liquid Fuel
Plasma Pyrolysis Technology
Legislative Measures
Conclusions
References
Section II: Plastics in the Environment
: Microplastics and Nanoplastics in the Environment
Introduction
Sources of Microplastics
Primary Microplastics
Secondary Microplastics
Microplastics Sampling and Abundance
Sampling Techniques
Beach Combing
Sediment Sampling
Marine Trawls
Marine Observational Surveys
Biological Sampling
Spatial and Temporal Variation of Microplastics
Fate of Microplastics and Nanoplastics in the Environment
Tracking the “Missing” Plastic
Nanofragmentation
Biofouling
Marine Ingestion
Interaction of Chemical Pollutants with Microplastics
The Way Forward
References
: Marine Pollution: The Problem of Microplastics
: Impacts of Macro- and Microplastics on Macrozoobenthos Abundance in the Intertidal Zone
Introduction
Materials and Methods
Study Site
Method of Macroplastic Survey
Method of Microplastic Survey
Sampling of Macrozoobenthos
Data Analysis
Results and Discussions
Macroplastics
Microplastic
Macrozoobenthos
Conclusions
References
Section III: Plastics in Food
: Microplastics and Nanoplastics in Food
Introduction
Classification of Fragmented Plastics
Microplastics
Nanoplastics
Impact of Micro- and Nanoplastics on Aquaculture and its Products
Sources of Human Consumption of Fragmented Plastics
Marine Source of Consumption
Non-Marine Source of Consumption
Inhalation Exposure to Fragmented Plastics
Uptake and Translocation of Fragmented Plastics
Uptake in Respiratory Tract by Endocytosis
Uptake in Gastrointestinal Tract by Endocytosis
Uptake by the Persorption Method
Fragmented Plastics in Food and Food Packaging
Health Hazards Caused by Fragmented Plastics
Toxicological Pathways of Fragmented Plastics
Inflammatory and Immune Response by Fragmented Plastics
Effect on the Airway and Gastrointestinal Tract
Effect of Adsorbed and Endogenous Chemical Pollutants
Effect on Microbiome
Current Methods of Detection, Identification and Quantification of Micro- and Nanoplastics in Food and Other Samples
Filtration Technique
Floatation or Sedimentation Technique
Matrix Dissolution Technique
Oil Extraction
Optical Vibrational Spectroscopy
Thermal Analysis
Fluorescent Tagging with Nile Red
Time-of-Flight Secondary Ion Mass Spectrometry (ToF-SIMS)
Conclusion and Future Prospective
References
Section IV: Sampling and Analysis
: Sampling, Isolating and Digesting of Microplastics
Sampling
Field-Collected Organisms
Microplastic Losses during Field Sampling
Microplastic Accumulation during Field Sampling
Sample Storage
Laboratory-Exposed Organisms
Isolating Microplastics
Dissection
Depuration
Digestion
Nitric Acid
Other Acids
Alkalis
Oxidizing Agents
Sodium Hypochlorite
Enzymes
Effect of Temperature
Filtering Digestants
Density Separation
References
: Sampling, Isolating and Identifying Microplastics Ingested by Fish and Invertebrates
Introduction
Methodological Review
Sampling
Field-Collected Organisms
Laboratory-Exposed Organisms
Isolating Microplastics
Dissection
Depuration
Digestion
Density Separation
Microplastic Identification
Visual Identification
Polymer Verification
Contamination
Contamination during Field Sampling
Contamination during Sample Processing and Analysis
Data Analysis
Discussion
Controlling Sampling Bias
Eective Plastic Isolation
Polymer Verification
Mitigating Contamination
Data Analysis
Recommendations for Future Work
Concluding Remarks
References
Section V: Microplastics and POPs
: Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs): A Real Threat to the Environment
Introduction
Sources and Persistence of POPs
Current Scenario of POPs
Polychlorinated Biphenyls (PCBs)
Bisphenol A (BPA)
Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAHs)
Health and Environmental Effects of POPs
Future Prospects
References
: Marine Litter Plastics and Microplastics and Their Toxic Chemicals Components: The Need for Urgent Preventive Measures
Background—Situation on Plastic and Related Chemical Contamination and Impacts
Plastics in the Ocean: Sources, Volumes, Trends
Chemicals (POPs and EDCs) in Marine Litter Plastics: Fate in the Marine Environment
Potential Impacts on Marine Biodiversity
Potential Impacts from Marine Plastics on Human Health
Potential Impacts on Food Safety and Availability and Economic Activity
Conclusions—Actions Needed and Potential Support by Chemical and Waste Convention
Urgent Measures Needed on Production and Consumption of Plastics and Waste Management
Potential Measures Suggested in the Framework of the Stockholm and Basel Conventions to Address Marine Litter; Contribution from the Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs.)
Contribution from the Basel Convention on Hazardous Wastes
Future Activities to Address Marine Litter
References
Section VI: Microplastics in Freshwater
: Microplastics in Freshwater
Plastics and Microplastics: A Historical Overview
Plastics
Microplastics: The Evolution of Plastic Pollution
Sources of Plastics and Microplastics into the Freshwater Environment
Occurrence in Freshwater Systems
Fate and Transport in Freshwater Systems
Transport of MPs
Environmental Persistence and Degradation
Interaction with Other Compounds
Factors Influencing Adsorption Process
Effects of Plastics and Microplastics on Freshwater Ecosystems
Ingestion of MPs and its Biological Impact
Chemical Effects
Biofilm-Related Impact
Effect of Biofilm
Biological Effects of Sub-Micrometer Plastics
Freshwater Microplastics: Challenges for Regulation and Management
Conclusion
References
: Microplastics in Freshwater Systems: A Review on Its Accumulation and Effects on Fishes
Introduction
Microplastics Overview: Types and Sources
Microplastics
Methods of Ingestion of MPs by Fishes
Data Analysis
Effects of Microplastics on Fishes
Recent Global Actions on MPs
Conclusions
References
Index
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