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Observed Climate Variability and Change over the Indian Region
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Observed Climate Variability and Change over the Indian Region
Rainfall
Temperature
Extreme Rainfall and Rainstorms
Heat and Cold Waves
Meteorological Droughts
Tropical Cyclones and Monsoon Depressions
Total Cloud Cover
Moisture Content
Radiative Fluxes
Sea Surface Temperature, Ocean Circulation
Sea Level
Glaciers and Snow Cover
Atmospheric Aerosol
Ozone and Related Trace Gases
Paleoclimatic Records of Past Monsoons
Regional Climate Change Scenarios
Observed Variability and Long-Term Trends of Rainfall Over India
Introduction
Brief Review of the Past Work
Data Used and Methodology
Observed Changes in Rainfall Pattern
Trend and Variability in All India Rainfall
Trends and Variability on Regional Scale
Trends in North-east Monsoon Rainfall
Change Point or Climate Jump in the South-west Monsoon Rainfall Over India
Conclusions
References
Variability and Long-Term Changes in Surface Air Temperatures Over the Indian Subcontinent
Introduction
Review of Past Work Done
Data and Methodology
Results and Discussions
Annual Trend of All India Temperatures
Seasonal Temperatures
Spatial Patterns of Temperature Trends
Annual Temperatures
Spatial Trends in the Seasonal Temperatures
Trend in Upper-Air Temperatures
Summary
References
Variability and Trends of Extreme Rainfall and Rainstorms
Introduction
Data and Methodology
Result and Analysis
Changes in the Frequency of Rainfall Events of Different Intensities in States
Trends of Extreme Rainfall Events Based on Gridded Data
Rainstorms
Conclusions
References
Heat and Cold Waves Over India
Introduction
Definition of HW and CW
Data and Methodology
Heat Wave (HW)/Severe Heat Wave (SHW)
Climatology and Decadal Variation
Frequency of the HW/SHW Days
Persistency of HW/SHW Conditions
Spatial Coverage of the HW/SHW
HW/SHW Days and ENSO
Trends in the Seasonal HW Days
Trends in the Total HW/SHW Days Over Core HW Zone (CHZ)
CW/SCW
Climatology and Decadal Variation
Frequency of the CW/SCW Days
Persistency of CW/SCW Events
ENSO and CW Days
Trends in the Station-Wise Seasonal CW/SCW Days
Trends in the Total CW/SCW Days Over CCZ
Conclusions
References
Variability of Meteorological Droughts Over India
Introduction
Climatology of District-Wide Drought Frequency During Southwest Monsoon Season
All-India (Country-Wide) Droughts
Composite Spatial SPI Patterns Associated with the All-India Drought
Relationship of Sea Surface Temperatures (SSTs) Over the Tropical Pacific and the Indian Oceans with All-India Droughts
Conclusions
References
Inter-annual Variation and Trends in Tropical Cyclones and Monsoon Depressions Over the North Indian Ocean
Introduction
Data and Methodology
Results and Discussions
Linear Trends in CDs, TCs and Severe TCs Frequencies
Trends During Satellite Era (1961-2010)
Trends in Intensification of CDs and TCs
Trends in Associated Atmospheric Parameters
Impact of CDs Trends on Seasonal Rainfall
Role of ENSO on CDs/TCs Frequency
Conclusion
References
Variability and Changes in Cloud Cover Over India During 1951-2010
Introduction
Review of Past Studies
Data and Methodology
Method of Observations
Data Used
Estimation of Long-Term Trends
Results and Discussion
Temporal Variations in TCC
Annual and Seasonal Mean TCC Variation
Spatial Patterns of Annual and Seasonal TCC Trends
Annual
Winter
Summer
Monsoon
PostMonsoon
Relationship Between TCC and Associated Climatic Variables DTR and NRD
Correlation Between TCC and DTR
Correlation Between TCC and NRD
Conclusions
References
Variability and Trends of Atmospheric Moisture over the Indian Region
Introduction
Data and Methodology
Results and Discussion
All India Trends
Specific Humidity
Relative Humidity
Regional Trends
Specific Humidity
Relative Humidity
Soil Moisture Trends
Moisture Content in the Atmosphere
Conclusions
References
Trends in Radiative Fluxes Over the Indian Region
Introduction
Solar Radiation Measurements
Review of Earlier Studies in India
Annual and Seasonal Variability of Radiative Flux
Long-Term Variability of Radiative Flux
Radiative Flux Variability in the Recent Decade
Radiative Flux from Other Data Sources
Implications for Climate Change
Summary
References
Variability and Trends of Sea Surface Temperature and Circulation in the Indian Ocean
Observations in the Indian Ocean
Sea Surface Temperature (SST) Variability in the Indian Ocean
Response of Indian Ocean to El Nino Southern Oscillation (ENSO)
Indian Ocean Dipole (IOD)
Indian Ocean Warming
Local and Remote Impacts of Indian Ocean Warming
Indian Ocean Surface Circulation
Seasonal Mean Circulation in the Indian Ocean
Intraseasonal Variability in the Indian Ocean Circulation
Interannual Variability in the Indian Ocean Circulation
Trends in Indian Ocean Circulation
References
Sea Level Variability and Trends in the North Indian Ocean
Introduction
Sea Level Observations
Tide Gauges
Satellite Altimetry
Long-Term Trend in Indian Ocean Sea Level
Inter-annual to Decadal Variability of Sea Level in the Indian Ocean
CMIP Projections on Future Sea Level Rise
References
Variability of Glaciers and Snow Cover
Introduction
Glacier Extent and Volume of Glacier-Stored Water in the Indian Himalaya
Glacial Extent
Glacial Volume
Retreat and Area Loss
Mass Balance
Snow Cover
Way Forward
Spatial Distribution of Glacial Depth and Volume
Identification and Mapping of Potential Moraine-Dammed Lakes
Modelling Glacier Dynamics to Understand Future Changes in Glacial Extent Due to Changes in Climate
Modelling Future Changes in Contribution of Snow and Glacier Melt in Stream Run-off
References
Variability of Atmospheric Aerosols Over India
Introduction
Variability in Aerosol Properties
Trends in Aerosol Optical Depth
Black Carbon Aerosols: Spatial and Temporal Variability
Evolution of Size Distributions
Vertical Distribution
Aerosol Direct Radiative Forcing: Past and Present
Conclusions
References
Variability of Ozone and Related Trace Gases Over India
Introduction
Atmospheric Total Ozone
Vertical Distribution of Ozone
Effects of Dynamics on Ozone in the Troposphere
Surface Ozone and Its Precursors
Surface Observations at High-Altitude Sites
Hydrocarbons
Sulfur Gases
Trace Gases over the Marine Regions
Long-Term Trends in Surface Ozone
Long-Term Trends in NOx
NOx Emission Inventories
Modeling Using Global and Regional Models
Heterogeneous Chemistry
Effects on Crops and Human Health
Concluding Remarks and Future Direction
References
Proxy Climatic Records of Past Monsoons
Introduction
Holocene Monsoon Variability
Marine Records of Holocene Monsoon
Historical Climate Records
Terrestrial Records
Dendroclimatic Reconstruction
New Tree-Ring Chronologies: Western Himalaya
Studies Based on Tropical Teak
Southern Indian Tree-Ring Chronologies from Kerala that Are Drought Sensitive
Speleothem Records from India
Conclusions
References
Regional Climate Change Scenarios
Introduction
Models and Experiments
CORDEX South Asia Models
Results and Discussion
Simulated Baseline Climate (1976-2005)
Simulated Climate Change (2031-2060)
Summary
References
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