Observed Climate Variability and Change over the Indian Region

Rainfall Temperature Extreme Rainfall and Rainstorms Heat and Cold Waves Meteorological Droughts Tropical Cyclones and Monsoon Depressions Total Cloud Cover Moisture Content Radiative Fluxes Sea Surface Temperature, Ocean Circulation Sea Level Glaciers and Snow Cover Atmospheric Aerosol Ozone and Related Trace Gases Paleoclimatic Records of Past Monsoons Regional Climate Change Scenarios Observed Variability and Long-Term Trends of Rainfall Over India Introduction Brief Review of the Past Work Data Used and Methodology Observed Changes in Rainfall Pattern Trend and Variability in All India Rainfall Trends and Variability on Regional Scale Trends in North-east Monsoon Rainfall Change Point or Climate Jump in the South-west Monsoon Rainfall Over India Conclusions References Variability and Long-Term Changes in Surface Air Temperatures Over the Indian Subcontinent Introduction Review of Past Work Done Data and Methodology Results and Discussions Annual Trend of All India Temperatures Seasonal Temperatures Spatial Patterns of Temperature Trends Annual Temperatures Spatial Trends in the Seasonal Temperatures Trend in Upper-Air Temperatures Summary References Variability and Trends of Extreme Rainfall and Rainstorms Introduction Data and Methodology Result and Analysis Changes in the Frequency of Rainfall Events of Different Intensities in States Trends of Extreme Rainfall Events Based on Gridded Data Rainstorms Conclusions References Heat and Cold Waves Over India Introduction Definition of HW and CW Data and Methodology Heat Wave (HW)/Severe Heat Wave (SHW)Climatology and Decadal Variation Frequency of the HW/SHW Days Persistency of HW/SHW Conditions Spatial Coverage of the HW/SHW HW/SHW Days and ENSO Trends in the Seasonal HW Days Trends in the Total HW/SHW Days Over Core HW Zone (CHZ)CW/SCW Climatology and Decadal Variation Frequency of the CW/SCW Days Persistency of CW/SCW Events ENSO and CW Days Trends in the Station-Wise Seasonal CW/SCW Days Trends in the Total CW/SCW Days Over CCZ Conclusions References Variability of Meteorological Droughts Over India Introduction Climatology of District-Wide Drought Frequency During Southwest Monsoon Season All-India (Country-Wide) Droughts Composite Spatial SPI Patterns Associated with the All-India Drought Relationship of Sea Surface Temperatures (SSTs) Over the Tropical Pacific and the Indian Oceans with All-India Droughts Conclusions References Inter-annual Variation and Trends in Tropical Cyclones and Monsoon Depressions Over the North Indian Ocean Introduction Data and Methodology Results and Discussions Linear Trends in CDs, TCs and Severe TCs Frequencies Trends During Satellite Era (1961-2010)Trends in Intensification of CDs and TCs Trends in Associated Atmospheric Parameters Impact of CDs Trends on Seasonal Rainfall Role of ENSO on CDs/TCs Frequency Conclusion References Variability and Changes in Cloud Cover Over India During 1951-2010 Introduction Review of Past Studies Data and Methodology Method of Observations Data Used Estimation of Long-Term Trends Results and Discussion Temporal Variations in TCC Annual and Seasonal Mean TCC Variation Spatial Patterns of Annual and Seasonal TCC Trends Annual Winter Summer Monsoon PostMonsoon Relationship Between TCC and Associated Climatic Variables DTR and NRD Correlation Between TCC and DTR Correlation Between TCC and NRD Conclusions References Variability and Trends of Atmospheric Moisture over the Indian Region Introduction Data and Methodology Results and Discussion All India Trends Specific Humidity Relative Humidity Regional Trends Specific Humidity Relative Humidity Soil Moisture Trends Moisture Content in the Atmosphere Conclusions References Trends in Radiative Fluxes Over the Indian Region Introduction Solar Radiation Measurements Review of Earlier Studies in India Annual and Seasonal Variability of Radiative Flux Long-Term Variability of Radiative Flux Radiative Flux Variability in the Recent Decade Radiative Flux from Other Data Sources Implications for Climate Change Summary References Variability and Trends of Sea Surface Temperature and Circulation in the Indian Ocean Observations in the Indian Ocean Sea Surface Temperature (SST) Variability in the Indian Ocean Response of Indian Ocean to El Nino Southern Oscillation (ENSO)Indian Ocean Dipole (IOD)Indian Ocean Warming Local and Remote Impacts of Indian Ocean Warming Indian Ocean Surface Circulation Seasonal Mean Circulation in the Indian Ocean Intraseasonal Variability in the Indian Ocean Circulation Interannual Variability in the Indian Ocean Circulation Trends in Indian Ocean Circulation References Sea Level Variability and Trends in the North Indian Ocean Introduction Sea Level Observations Tide Gauges Satellite Altimetry Long-Term Trend in Indian Ocean Sea Level Inter-annual to Decadal Variability of Sea Level in the Indian Ocean CMIP Projections on Future Sea Level Rise References Variability of Glaciers and Snow Cover Introduction Glacier Extent and Volume of Glacier-Stored Water in the Indian Himalaya Glacial Extent Glacial Volume Retreat and Area Loss Mass Balance Snow Cover Way Forward Spatial Distribution of Glacial Depth and Volume Identification and Mapping of Potential Moraine-Dammed Lakes Modelling Glacier Dynamics to Understand Future Changes in Glacial Extent Due to Changes in Climate Modelling Future Changes in Contribution of Snow and Glacier Melt in Stream Run-off References Variability of Atmospheric Aerosols Over India Introduction Variability in Aerosol Properties Trends in Aerosol Optical Depth Black Carbon Aerosols: Spatial and Temporal Variability Evolution of Size Distributions Vertical Distribution Aerosol Direct Radiative Forcing: Past and Present Conclusions References Variability of Ozone and Related Trace Gases Over India Introduction Atmospheric Total Ozone Vertical Distribution of Ozone Effects of Dynamics on Ozone in the Troposphere Surface Ozone and Its Precursors Surface Observations at High-Altitude Sites Hydrocarbons Sulfur Gases Trace Gases over the Marine Regions Long-Term Trends in Surface Ozone Long-Term Trends in NOx NOx Emission Inventories Modeling Using Global and Regional Models Heterogeneous Chemistry Effects on Crops and Human Health Concluding Remarks and Future Direction References Proxy Climatic Records of Past Monsoons Introduction Holocene Monsoon Variability Marine Records of Holocene Monsoon Historical Climate Records Terrestrial Records Dendroclimatic Reconstruction New Tree-Ring Chronologies: Western Himalaya Studies Based on Tropical Teak Southern Indian Tree-Ring Chronologies from Kerala that Are Drought Sensitive Speleothem Records from India Conclusions References Regional Climate Change Scenarios Introduction Models and Experiments CORDEX South Asia Models Results and Discussion Simulated Baseline Climate (1976-2005)Simulated Climate Change (2031-2060)Summary References