Emerging nanotechnologies for diagnostics, drug delivery and medical devices

Therapeutic Applications of Polymeric Materials INTRODUCTION POLYMERS AS DRUG DELIVERY SYSTEMS Polymer—Drug Conjugates Polymers in Ocular Drug Delivery Polymers in Tissue Engineering POLYMERS IN IMAGING AND DIAGNOSIS CONCLUSION REFERENCES Multifunctional Micro- and Nanoparticles INTRODUCTION Microparticles Nanoparticles Trojan Microparticles Multifunctional Micro- and Nanoparticles MICRO- AND NANOMATERIALS IN THE SYNTHESIS OF MULTIFUNCTIONAL CARRIERS Lipid-Based Micro/Nanocarriers Liposome Microemulsions Solid-Lipid Nanoparticles Polymeric Micro/Nanocarriers Natural Polymers Chitosan-Based Micro/nanoparticles Synthetic Polymers Dendrimers Nanomicelles Micro/Nanogel Inorganic Micro/Nanocarriers Quantum Dots Magnetic Nanoparticles Gold Nanoparticles TYPES OF FUNCTIONAL MOIETIES Peptides Proteins and Antibodies Nucleic Acids Carbohydrates Fluorescent Dyes FUNCTIONALIZATION OF MICRO- AND NANOPARTICLES Methods of Conjugating Functional Moieties to Micro- and Nanoparticles REFERENCES Nanomicelles in Diagnosis and Drug Delivery*INTRODUCTION NANOMICELLE PREPARATION APPLICATION OF NANOMICELLE IN DIAGNOSTICS AND IMAGING Computed Tomography Magnetic Resonance Imaging Near-Infrared Fluorescent Imaging APPLICATION OF NANOMICELLES IN DRUG DELIVERY Solubilize Poorly Water-Soluble Drugs Targeted Nanomicelles Stimuli-Responsive Nanomicelles pH Sensitive Temperature Sensitive Light Sensitive Ultrasound Responsive Others Multifunctional Nanomicelle Carrier CONCLUSION REFERENCES Diagnosis and Drug Delivery to the Brain: Novel Strategies INTRODUCTION BARRIERS FOR BRAIN DRUG DELIVERY PHYSIOLOGY OF THE BLOOD—BRAIN BARRIER Conventional Strategies for Brain Drug Delivery INVASIVE DRUG DELIVERY APPROACHES Convection Enhanced Drug Delivery BBB Permeability Modulation Ultrasound-Mediated BBB Disruption Optical Modulation of Vascular Permeability NONINVASIVE DRUG DELIVERY APPROACHES Chemical Derivatization Prodrug Lipidization Transporter-Targeted Prodrugs Intranasal Drug Delivery NANOTECHNOLOGY APPROACHES Nanoparticles Polymeric Nanoparticles Lipid Nanoparticles Magnetic Nanoparticles ACTIVE BLOOD-BRAIN BARRIER TARGETING STRATEGIES Absorptive-Mediated Transcytosis Transporter-Mediated Transcytosis Receptor-Mediated Transcytosis Blood—Brain Tumor Barrier Targeting Strategies NOVEL NANOPLATFORMS AND DELIVERY VEHICLES FOR BBB TARGETING Mesenchymal Stem Cells Macrophages Exosomes DEVELOPMENT OF NEURODIAGNOSTIC NANOIMAGING PLATFORMS Conventional Imaging Modalities Optical Imaging Hybrid Imaging Using Optical Contrast CONCLUSION ACKNOWLEDGMENT REFERENCES Emerging Nanotechnology for Stem Cell Therapy INTRODUCTION APPLICATION OF NANOPARTICLES IN ISOLATION OF STEM CELLS APPLICATION OF NANOPARTICLES IN STEM CELL TRACKING ROLE OF NANOTECHNOLOGY IN REGULATING MICROENVIRONMENT OF STEM CELLS: POTENTIAL ROLES IN TISSUE ENGINEERING NANOPARTICLES AS MACROMOLECULAR DELIVERY SYSTEMS FOR STEM CELLS FUTURE PROSPECTS AND CHALLENGES FACING THE FIELD REFERENCES Nanoparticulate Systems for Therapeutic and Diagnostic Applications INTRODUCTION WHY NANOTECHNOLOGY AND NANOMEDICINE?TYPES OF NANOPARTICLES IN DRUG DELIVERY Nonrigid Nanoparticles Liposomes Lipid Film Hydration Method for Preparation of Liposomes Drug Loading Liposomes by the Passive Loading Method Purification of Liposomes—Detergent Removal Methods In Vitro and In Vivo Studies Involving Liposomes Challenges Associated With Liposomes Solid Lipid Nanoparticles Methods to Prepare Solid Lipid Nanoparticles Solvent Emulsification—Evaporation Method Drug Incorporation in Solid Lipid Nanoparticles Challenges Associated With Solid Lipid Nanoparticles Stability of Solid Lipid Nanoparticles Rigid Nanoparticles Biodegradable Polymeric Nanoparticles Preparation of Polymeric Nanoparticles Laboratory-Scale Preparation of Polymeric Nanoparticles Large-Scale Production of Nanoparticles In Vitro and In Vivo Studies Involving Nanoparticles Challenges Associated With Polymeric Nanoparticles Carbon Nanotubes and Nanohorns Iron Nanoparticles Methods of Preparation Applications of Magnetic Nanoparticles in Drug Delivery CONCLUSION REFERENCES Peptide and Protein-Based Therapeutic Agents INTRODUCTION CHALLENGES WITH PEPTIDE AND PROTEIN THERAPEUTICS CHEMICAL MODIFICATIONS PEGylation Glycosylation Mannosylation MICRO- AND NANOTECHNOLOGY FOR BIOLOGICS IN DRUG DELIVERY Microparticles or Microspheres Nanoparticles Solid Lipid NP Carbon Nanotube Liposomes Aquasomes Micelles PROTEIN- AND PEPTIDE-BASED THERAPEUTICS Therapeutic Applications Cancer Ocular Diseases Other Diseases Diagnostic Applications Magnetic Nanoparticles Carbon Nanotubes and Gold Nanoparticles Other Protein/Peptide Diagnostics CONCLUSION REFERENCES Nanotechnology in Intracellular Trafficking, Imaging, and Delivery of Therapeutic Agents INTRODUCTION Nanotechnology in Intracellular Trafficking MECHANISMS Clathrin-Mediated Endocytosis Caveolae-Mediated Endocytosis Clathrin and Caveolae-Independent Mechanisms RhoA-Mediated Uptake Clathrin-Independent Carriers/Glycosylphosphotidylinositol- Anchored Protein Enriched Early EndosomalCompartments Pathway Flotillin-Mediated Endocytosis MACROPINOCYTOSIS Phagocytosis Different Phases in Intracellular Trafficking of Nanomaterials Early Endocytic Vesicles Late Endosomes—Multivesicular Bodies Lysosomes Intracellular Trafficking of Nanomaterials Mechanisms of Particle Uptake Into Cell Nucleus Imaging Technology for Intracellular Trafficking of Nanostructures Confocal Microscopy Quantum Dots and Gold Nanoparticles Gold Nanoparticles CONCLUSION REFERENCES Electrospun Nanofibers in Drug Delivery: Fabrication, Advances, and Biomedical Applications INTRODUCTION Process of Electrospinning Parameters Influencing the Electrospinning Process and Fiber Characteristics Concentration Polymer Molecular Weight Conductivity Viscosity Flow Rate Applied Voltage Distance Between the Needle Tip and Collector Environmental Factors (Humidity and Temperature)Collector Types STIMULI-RESPONSIVE NANOFIBERS IN DRUG DELIVERY APPLICATIONS pH-Responsive Systems Light-Activated Systems Thermoresponsive Systems Ultrasound-Responsive Systems Enzyme-Responsive Systems Oxidative Stress—Responsive Systems Carbohydrate-Responsive Systems Multiresponsive Systems Challenges in Stimuli-Responsive Drug Delivery Applications of Nanofibers APPLICATIONS OF ELECTROSPUN NANOFIBERS Electrospun Nanofibers in Tissue Engineering Skin Tissue Engineering Bone Tissue Engineering Cardiac Tissue Engineering Nerve Tissue Engineering Electrospun Nanofibers Applications in Dentistry Electrospun Nanofibers Application in Ocular Injuries Electrospun Nanofibers in Drug Delivery Transdermal Drug Delivery System Cancer Therapy Electrospun Nanofibers in Biomedical Application Biosensor and Immunoassay CONCLUSION REFERENCES Nanosystems for Diagnostic Imaging, Biodetectors, and Biosensors INTRODUCTION NANOSYSTEMS AS PLATFORMS FOR ADVANCED DIAGNOSTIC IMAGING Iron Oxide Nanoparticles Quantum Dots Gold Nanoparticles Carbon Nanotubes Silica Nanoparticles Liposomes Nanomicelles Dendrimers DIAGNOSTIC IMAGING WITH NANOSYSTEMS Magnetic Resonance Imaging Optical Imaging Nuclear Imaging Computed Tomography Ultrasound BIOLOGICAL SENSORS Glucose Sensors Immobilized Enzyme Film Glucose Biosensors Nanoparticle/Carbon Nanotube—Based Glucose Biosensors Mechanism of Implantable Biosensor Nonenzymatic Glucose Biosensors Mechanism of Nonenzymatic Glucose Biosensors Microcantilever Mechanism of Microcantilever Deflection Microcantilevers as Cancer Detectors Microcantilevers in Coronary Heart Diseases Microcantilevers in Nucleotide Polymorphisms Biochips in Microcantilevers Nanocantilevers CONCLUSIONS REFERENCES Micro- and Nanotechnology-Based Implantable Devices and Bionics INTRODUCTION BIOCOMPATIBILITY ISSUES OF IMPLANTS MICROTECHNOLOGY-BASED IMPLANTABLE DEVICES AND BIONICS Sensing Systems Drug Delivery Devices NANOTECHNOLOGY-BASED IMPLANTABLE DEVICES AND BIONICS Sensing Systems Drug Delivery Devices CONCLUSIONS AND FUTURE PERSPECTIVES REFERENCES Solid Lipid Nanoparticles in Drug Delivery: Opportunities and Challenges INTRODUCTION COMPONENTS OF SOLID LIPID NANOPARTICLES Lipid Surfactant SOLID LIPID NANOPARTICLE PRODUCTION TECHNIQUES High-Pressure Homogenization Hot Homogenization Technique Cold Homogenization Technique Microemulsion-Based Technique Solvent Emulsification—Evaporation Technique Solvent Displacement Technique Emulsification—Diffusion Technique DRUG-LOADING CAPACITY OF SOLID LIPID NANOPARTICLES DRUG INCORPORATION MODELS OF SOLID LIPID NANOPARTICLES DRUG RELEASE FROM SOLID LIPID NANOPARTICLES Influence of Temperature Influence of Surfactants APPLICATIONS OF SOLID LIPID NANOPARTICLES FOR DRUG DELIVERY Routes of Administration of SLNs Oral Administration Parenteral Route Topical Administration Pulmonary Administration Rectal Administration Ocular Administration Application of Solid Lipid Nanoparticles for Delivery of Hydrophilic Drugs: PEG Coating SLNs as Potential Carriers of Anticancer Agents Significance of Solid Lipid Nanoparticles as Anticancer Carriers Incorporation of Hydrophilic Anticancer Actives in Solid Lipid Nanoparticles STABILITY CONCERNS OF SOLID LIPID NANOPARTICLES Influence of Shear Forces and Lipid Concentration Influence of the Surface of the Packing Material Properties of the Lipids: SLNs Versus Bulk Material Stability and Storage Conditions Gelling Tendency: Temperature Versus Shear Forces Physical Stability Physical Stability due to Changes in Lipids Gelation Lipid Modification Physical Stability due to Changes in Colloidal Lipid Dispersion Ostwald Ripening Coalescence Chemical Stability Phospholipid Stability Triglycerides Stability TOXICITY ASPECTS OF SOLID LIPID NANOPARTICLES DIAGNOSTIC APPLICATIONS OF SOLID LIPID NANOPARTICLES IN VIVO FATE OF SOLID LIPID NANOPARTICLES CONCLUSIONS REFERENCES Microneedles in Drug Delivery INTRODUCTION SKIN STRUCTURE AND BARRIER TO TRANSDERMAL DELIVERY MICRONEEDLES Solid Microneedles Hollow Microneedles Coated Microneedles Dissolving Microneedles Hydrogel-Forming Microneedles SELECTION OF MICRONEEDLE DESIGNS FOR APPLICATIONS COMMERCIAL MICRONEEDLE DEVICES REFERENCES Nanotechnology-Based Medical and Biomedical Imaging for Diagnostics INTRODUCTION FLUORESCENCE-BASED IMAGING AND DIAGNOSTICS NANOCARRIERS IN BIOLOGICAL IMAGING Inorganic Nanomaterials Magnetic Nanoparticles Gold Nanoparticles Silica Nanoparticles Quantum Dots Surface-Enhanced Raman Scattering Lipid Nanocarriers Gadolinium Nanoparticles Radiolabeled Nanoparticles Radiolabeled Liposomes Radiolabeled Iron Oxide Nanoparticles Gold Nanoparticles Gold Nanoshells Radiolabeled Nanomicelles PHOTOACOUSTIC AND ULTRASOUND IMAGING CONCLUSIONS REFERENCES Drug and Gene Delivery Materials and Devices INTRODUCTION ADVANCES IN DELIVERY SYSTEMS Nanomaterials Nano Drug Delivery Systems GENE DELIVERY Viral Vector Approach Nonviral Vector Approach Physical Approach GENE THERAPY PRODUCTS CONCLUSION AND FUTURE DIRECTION ACKNOWLEDGMENT REFERENCES